Why Do We Write Arguments?
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This may seem a strange question, but one that may be posed by several students or stakeholders. Research supports state standards and will answer staff members to whom the question arises regarding the purpose for creating an argument, on what occasions arguments are appropriate, and the kinds of arguments and their bases. This research base will give teachers, curriculum directors, content area teachers, and parents an understanding of the reasoning that supports argument writing. Appendices and definitions of terms have been attached for guidance. It is important to also state this research does not prescribe the content of instruction. Rather, it is included to provide background information for teachers who may need additional information about argumentative writing.
The Common Core Standards state in Appendix A that “in English language arts, students make claims about the worth or meaning of a literary work or works. They defend their interpretations or judgments with evidence from the text(s) they are writing about. In history/social studies, students analyze evidence from multiple primary and secondary sources to advance a claim that is best supported by the evidence, and they argue for a historically or empirically situated interpretation. In science, students make claims in the form of statements or conclusions that answer questions or address problems. Using data in a scientifically acceptable form, students marshal evidence and draw on their understanding of scientific concepts to argue in support of their claims. Although young children are not able to produce fully developed logical arguments, they develop a variety of methods to extend and elaborate their work by providing examples, offering reasons for their assertions, and explaining cause and effect. These kinds of expository structures are steps on the road to argument.” An argument’s intent is to make a point or claim and substantiate it with evidence. Arguments have a variety of purposes, not all of which are aimed at winning. In Appendix A of this document, a list of the purposes for which arguments are written and examples of each will assist educators in making decisions about the many purposes an argument may be set up in their classrooms. Many arguments are based on emotions, character, or based on facts and reason. There are Latin terms for these that some may recall: Pathos, Ethos and Logos, respectively. Once students can identify the type of argument they may be dealing with, the examination or analysis of this type of writing becomes quite simple along with the construct of an argument they may be asked to write. “Emotional arguments, or pathos, generate emotions in readers to shape their responses and dispose them to accept a claim” (Lunsford, 2010). Arguments based on emotion are used when the purpose is to persuade or to convince the reader to take an action. There a number of ways to do this such as attempting to connect to the personal experiences of the reader, helping the reader identify with the writer’s personal experiences, or making logical claims that may go against a reader’s viewpoints. Photographs and images assist in adding influence to an emotional argument. Consider television or magazine advertisements that evoke emotions such as an attractive person applying sun tan lotion that make viewers long for a vacation to a tropical island. Adding strong emotion to a dull topic can add vitality. This is a delicate method that requires skill but students well versed in the method can apply it to writing. For example, if the topic is about health care and the writer uses the tactic to insinuate that Grandpa’s costs will be raised so high that he will lose his home and eat a sandwich a day just to afford his medication. This will all happen to Grandpa after he has served his country in the military. Strong emotions might scare people enough to take action. Finally, humor can be easily inserted to comfort readers. This may allow a reader to make a judgment easily, especially about a sensitive topic. Ethos or ethical appeals are character arguments. Once a writer builds credibility by emphasizing that values are shared with the audience and respect is shared with the opponents, authority and integrity are established. Companies work diligently at branding themselves to earn trust, respect and loyalty from consumers. Branding that is done through advertising campaigns and logos designed are not only to grasp the attention of a consumer, but are to carry the integrity of an institution as well. Many cultural or organizational representations can be considered ethical appeals such as flags, logos, or badges. Consider a badge with a pictorial representation and a no sign over it such as a gun or a fur coat. Establishing credibility is a main command of the character argument because the reader will pose questions regarding the authority of the writer, especially if it is an aggressive claim. Credibility can be established through personal experience, academic or professional titles, respect for the values of an audience, connecting writers’ beliefs to the cause or core principles of the topic, or acknowledging objections or weaknesses that a reader might raise. These are called rebuttals and the writer is contradicting or dispelling any suspicions that might be at the heart of the ethical argument using a combination of statements, ideas that are opposed to one another. For example, if a claim states that students learn best today through technology, a rebuttal might be, however, there are some students, due to disabilities, may not find all technological devices assistive. Finally, logos, or logical arguments are based on facts, reasons, and evidence. Logos arguments are usually displayed by making a statement or claim and then providing the proof or supporting evidence. With the Internet available to all and limited scrutinizing of sources in some cases, it is especially important for students to become adept at validating the reliability of facts that are gathered and collected from all resources. Numbers, surveys, and polls are one way to support logos arguments. However, they have the potential to be shaped by writers who may have agendas. For example, politicians can use the same survey or poll to cite celebration in one camp or a cause for alarm in another camp. Students need to be prepared to ask questions of headlines and read beyond the journalist reports when reading logical arguments. Personal experiences can also support a claim with testimonies and narratives. The narratives and testimonies should maintain factual accounts and not lean towards emotional descriptions. Consider victims of a tornado or flooding incident and how their stories might impact a petition for a grant from a governmental agency. The Toulmin Method of Argument is the shaping of a credible argument that many use today as informal logic. It is outlined in Appendix B by the work of George Hillocks, Jr. The structure of argument and the definitions of the supporting evidence are defined in Hillock’s work. Students should begin to read arguments and compose analyses of how well the arguments persuade or move an audience. Political cartoons, editorials and even movie advertisements are a place to begin rhetorical analysis. Appendix C offers questions that can be posed when analyzing argumentative or opinion essays. The tools and suggestions found in the rest of the opinion and argumentative writing module will assist teachers with preparing students to meet the learning standards for this type of writing. |
Bibliography
Hillocks, Jr., G. (2011). Teaching argument writing grades 6-12: Supporting claims with relevant evidence and clear reasoning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Lunsford, A. Ruszkiewicz, J., & Walters, J. (2010). Everything's an argument. Boston, MA: Bedford/St Martin's.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common core state standards. Washington D.C.: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers.
Hillocks, Jr., G. (2011). Teaching argument writing grades 6-12: Supporting claims with relevant evidence and clear reasoning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Lunsford, A. Ruszkiewicz, J., & Walters, J. (2010). Everything's an argument. Boston, MA: Bedford/St Martin's.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common core state standards. Washington D.C.: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers.